Simple pricing can go a long way. A modest, well-designed cordon toll captures a large share of the attainable system benefits without requiring overly complex differentiation

Tradable credits are not a silver bullet. While tradable credit schemes can improve political acceptability by redistributing value to users internally, they do not outperform well-designed tolls in terms of transportation efficiency and come with greater implementation complexity

Governance structure matters. Outcomes change significantly when bus services are privatized or when authorities take different strategic positions — institutional design is as important as price levels